This is a draft of my dissertation that I will be defending in December, 2022.
DRAFT
Statement of Research Problem
COVID-19 is a deadly health crisis that continues to spread across the globe. The virus has disrupted everyone’s lives, and the number of cases and deaths continue to rise. As of October 2020, there were over 7,000,000 cases of COVID-19 in the United States and over 200,000 deaths (CDC Data Tracker). As a precaution, in Spring 2020, many colleges and universities sent students home and moved their courses online or moved to a hybrid of online and in-person learning to limit the number of students on campus (Hodges et al., 2020).
This disruption in learning will drastically impact college admissions. Colleges and universities anticipate a substantial decline in enrollment. Over 80 percent of university presidents surveyed by the Chronicle of Higher Education (Friga, 2020, April 3) expect a decrease in enrollments for new and returning students. These enrollment declines could exacerbate existing inequities in higher education.
Inequities and systemic racism have existed for decades in the United States. From the beginning of our nation’s history, Native Americans were subject to severe forms of oppression by European settlers. Their way of life was under relentless attack, resulting in substantial losses in American Indian resources, land, and lives (Noltemeyer et al., 2012). Jim Crow laws were passed at the state and local level throughout the South to restrict African American’s civic and economic rights after the United States abolished slavery in 1865. The 1896 Supreme Court’s decision in Plessy v. Ferguson upheld the Jim Crow laws by declaring the “separate but equal doctrine” as constitutional. In reality, separate was not equal when it came to education. Facilities built for African Americans were inferior in quality and grossly underfunded. This further institutionalized the economic and social inequity of African Americans (Hammond et al., 2020).
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were created in the mid-19th century in the segregated South to allow black Americans to attend college. The 1944 G.I. Bill’s provided payments to cover tuition expenses for all veterans who had been on active duty, including African Americans. By the 1940’s nearly all black college students attended college in HBCUs, the only accredited institutions that allowed black Americans to earn undergraduate and professional degrees in many states. Desegregation became the focal point of legal battles across the nation, with strong resistance in the South. Desegregation efforts encountered violence, death threats, and riots. The 1954 unanimous Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education decision that declared racial segregation of children in public schools as unconstitutional did little to reduce racial segregation, especially in the South. Desegregation is a slow process that continues today (Hammond et al., 2020).
Research has shown there is a high level of poverty in majority-minority schools due to school segregation. More minority students attend high-poverty schools, and these schools traditionally have fewer resources and lower student achievement. Because most children attend school near or in their neighborhood, schools’ economic segregation increases (Reardon & Owens, 2014).
The increased support of public opinion for the Black Lives Matter movement in 2020 has magnified the focus on diversity in higher education enrollment. COVID-19 has brought new scrutiny to the ongoing disparities in higher education. Higher education must address these disparities to reflect future students’ diversity (Cohn & Quealy, 2020, June 10).
This study will focus on the inequities and barriers that first-generation students face today. A large body of research indicates that first-generation students routinely face significant challenges in accessing postsecondary education. First-generation students are often minorities, children of immigrants, and individuals from a low socioeconomic background, and they face more significant hardships related to the financial costs of attending college (Bennett, et al., 2015; House, et al. 2020). Their families may be encouraging and supportive, but they lack the college experience knowledge to help their children navigate the college admissions process (Chen A., 2017).
A study conducted by Cataldi et al. (2018) used data from 2002 to 2012 to study first-generation students' enrollment characteristics. The study defined those students as students whose parents had not attended college, with the enrollment characteristics of students with at least one parent who earned a bachelor’s degree and students with at least one parent who attended college, defined as non-first-generation students. The number of 2002 high school sophomores, first-generation students, enrolled in postsecondary education in 2012 was 72 percent. Conversely, 93 percent of first-generation students had done so (Cataldi et al., 2018).
The impact of COVID-19 on these marginalized students has recently been the focus of research. The effect of the virus is making the socioeconomic disparities in higher education worse. This study will examine how COVID-19 has impacted the challenges and barriers First-Generation Students routinely face than NFGS. It will also address how the inequities have changed due to COVID. Are they worse or have the injustices decreased in any way? Hearing directly from students about how COVID-19 has impacted their access and enrollment in higher education will garner valuable information and possibly bring new issues and concerns to light. This study will interview first-generation students who planned to enroll in higher education for Fall 2020, Spring 2021, and Fall 2021 and those who ultimately did not enroll in any or all of those terms to determine what barriers motivators informed their decision. These dates may need to be changed depending on when surveys begin. This information will be a crucial factor for higher education administrators to develop new processes, programs, and policies to increase access for first-generation students to higher education and to assist them once they are enrolled.
Purpose Statement
This study will address how COVID-19 has impacted college admissions diversity and use an explanatory sequential mixed methods design. It will involve collecting quantitative data first and then explaining the quantitative results with in-depth qualitative data. The first quantitative phase of the study will review data from existing research to determine if there are barriers or motivators for first-generation students in the college admissions process. The second qualitative phase will help explain the quantitative results as they relate to college admissions during COVID-19. In this exploratory follow-up, the tentative plan is to explore the college admissions process after COVID-19 with first-generation students who applied and did not enroll and first-generation students who applied and enrolled in higher education between Fall 2020 Fall 2021.
Literature Review
Racial diversity and inequity in higher education is not a new concept. There continues to be a large national disparity in Black and Hispanic students enrolled at more selective colleges. While Latino enrollment in higher education has increased as the Latino population has grown, Latinos have the lowest educational attainment rate of any racial or ethnic group. The increase in diversity across American culture creates challenges and opportunities for increasing diversity in higher education. The considerable rise in public opinion supporting Black Lives Matter since George Floyd's death in May 2020 has put diversity at the forefront (Cohn & Quealey, 2020). Colleges and university consider diversity to be part of their mission to create a better society, but there is still a widespread pattern of underrepresentation of different racial and ethnic groups, specifically at more selective colleges (Chen, 2017; Cohn & Quealey, 2020; Monarrez & Washington, 2020; Musu-Gillette, et al., 2017; Nunez & Murakami-Ramalho, 2012).
College accessibility for first-generation students reinforces the inequities that continue to exist within higher education. More first-generation students are applying to college, but they earn bachelor’s degrees at a lower rate than their peers (Murphy et al. 2006). Most tend to be minorities, children of immigrants, and from low-income families. First-generation students face unique barriers to enrolling in higher education (House et al., 2020). Their parents have no institutional knowledge of the college admissions process and cannot help their students navigate the process. The admissions process can include factors that favor students from privilege over first-generation students, including legacy admissions and emphasizing standardized test scores. The college choice of first-generation students largely depends on family responsibilities and financial hardships, rather than school reputation, program specialization, or institutional fit (Garza et al., 2018; House et al., 2020; Lozano-Partida, A. 2018; Murphy et al. 2006; Rosinger et al., 2020).
Additional studies have focused on the assets and motivators of first-generation students in higher education. Parents can strongly influence first-generation students’ motivation during the college planning process by supporting their students’ decisions on college choice and encouraging them to better their lives. Parents who set high standards at an early age for their students to academically increase their students’ confidence to attend and succeed in college. Many first-generation students are optimistic, goal-oriented, civic-minded, and proactive. These motivators and assets contribute to first-generation students' success (Hands, 2020; Mitchall et al., 2018).
The disruptive effects of COVID-19 have impacted higher education in many ways, forcing institutions to abruptly switch to online learning, sending students home from campus, and negatively impacting enrollment. The socioeconomic disparities already present in higher education have been made worse by students' financial hardships and emotional challenges due to COVID. However, a catastrophic event like a recession or pandemic is a change agent that can offer an opportunity to achieve a new equality level. (Aucejo et al., 2020; Blankenberg, B. et al., 2020; Hodges et al., 2020).
Deficiencies in Studies
Despite the growth in the number of first-generation students in higher education, research has mostly focused on racial and gender diversity. While these studies' results are informative, they do not consider the specific experiences of first-generation students and higher education (Monarrez & Washington, 2020; Musu-Gillette et al., 2017; Nunez & Murakami-Ramalho, 2012). The research conducted on first-generation students focused on the barriers and challenges those students face during the college admissions process and transition to college in a non-pandemic world (Garza & Fullerton, 2018; Lozano-Partida, 2018; Mitchall & Jaeger, 2018; Murphy & Hicks, 2006). The data from these studies is pre-COVID. More current research is needed to see if the results are still valid. The impact of the disruptive effects of COVID-19 will add additional challenges and barriers that students have not yet faced.
The only current research has been on the initial impact of COVID when most, if not all, higher education institutions closed their campuses and sent students home, offering virtual learning for the semester. COVID-19 is a relatively new crisis and continues to evolve (Aucejo et al., 2020).
COVID-19 has disrupted the American way of life in every possible way. The impact has been felt most by those in lower socioeconomic groups. Many cities and states were on lockdown, and travel was not allowed except in extreme emergencies. Non-essential businesses closed, and many did not reopen once the lockdown ended. The economy has taken a downturn, impacting higher education (Martin et al., 2020).
Research of previous higher education crises did not have the same universal impact on everyday life as COVID-19. Gansemer-Topf et al. (2018) studied the effect of the 2008 recession on higher education. The study found that low-income families are usually most impacted in a downturn; therefore, access and retention for students from a low socioeconomic status should also be affected. This study will determine whether this applies to the effect of COVID-19 on low-income families.
A significant result of COVID-19 has been the abrupt change to online learning or a hybrid of online/in-person learning. While some colleges and universities offer online learning as a regular part of their curriculum and could make the change with ease, many others were scrambling to figure it out. Studies conducted on students' experience with online learning did not focus on first-generation students (AguileraHermida, 2020). Online learning could have a more significant impact on student outcomes, especially first-generation students. Research into the effects of online learning on first-generation students is needed to determine the long-term impact on their access to higher education.
This study will focus on the impact COVID-19 had on college admissions between Fall 2020 and Fall 2021. Ongoing research on the residual effect of the virus will need to be conducted to determine the long-term impact on first-generation students.
Rationale for Methodology
I intend to use a qualitative methodology design. Through my literature review, I learned that this is the best method to collect detailed data to understand a research problem from multiple perspectives (Rutter et al., 2020). I will use students from the George Washington University, Georgetown University, and the University of Virginia to get insight from students at both public and private institutions of higher education. My research results will produce valuable information that will be used by these institutions almost immediately to effect change. The goal of this study is to create research that these institutions can use to make a difference and enhance first-generation students' lives.
I will use existing data from the three universities on admissions and enrollment status of first-generation students for Fall 2020. I will use qualitative research to follow up on that data to explain the barriers or motivators related to college admissions during COVID-19. It is important to hear directly from students to fully understand the barriers and challenges they face in the college admissions process. I will explore the college admissions process after COVID-19 through a survey with students that applied and did not enroll and students that applied and enrolled in higher education between Fall 2020 and Fall 2021. Independent variables will include COVID-19 and student status of first-generation and non-first generation. Dependent variables will consist of on-campus or off-campus domicile status, Fall 2020 enrollment, Fall 2021 enrollment, change in school choice, failure to enroll in Fall 2020, and failure to enroll in Fall 2021.
I will provide a contextual paragraph in the survey explaining the onset of COVID-19 and the CDC guidelines put in place, and information on universities moving from on-campus learning to online or a hybrid of in-person/virtual learning. The first survey questions will ask specific information that can be answered either through a checklist or as yes or no. This information is necessary to group the responses into the appropriate category for analysis.
My second set of questions will ask about the participants' demographics, whether or not they are first-generation students and the specific experiences of each participant with COVID-19 and higher education. The three universities admissions department will send my survey to targeted students who accepted admission to enroll in Fall 2021 and determine the different barriers and motivators for those who enrolled and those who did not. These questions will be open-ended to gain as much information as possible from all participants. My questions will include demographic questions on race, gender, and first-generation student status. Additional questions will consist of their enrollment or intention of enrollment for Fall 2020.
1.In March 2021, were you enrolled, or did you intend to enroll in higher education for Fall 2021?
Yes or No
2.Did you enroll in higher education for Fall 2021?
Yes or No
3.If you did not enroll in higher education for Fall 2021, please explain why you did not enroll.
4.If you did not enroll in higher education for Fall 2021, how likely are you to enroll in higher education for Spring 2021?
Extremely Likely Very Likely Neutral Very Unlikely Extremely Unlikely
Significance of the Study
The emphasis on diversity in college admissions grew exponentially in 2020 due to the Black Lives Matter movement. Higher education is taking a more strategic look at increasing diversity in its student body, including first-generation students. Prior research has shown that first-generation students face barriers and challenges that are different from those of non-first-generation students when it comes to higher education. My research will identify specific barriers and challenges that first-generation students face and if these have changed due to COVID-19. This study will compare and contrast the obstacles and challenges that first-generation and non-first-generation students face during each phase of COVID-19. This information will inform higher education administrators what the specific needs are that first-generation students face during and possibly post-Covid-19, how those needs have changed, and how those needs are different from non-first-generation students. Knowing what these barriers and issues are that first-generation students face will allow higher education institutions to develop resources to address these specific areas of concern. Institutions may need to update their policies, programs, and processes to serve first-generation students better. This focus on creating a welcoming community for students based on their needs will result in more first-generation students enrolling in their institution.
Introduction
COVID-19 is a deadly health crisis that continues to affect higher education. As a precaution, in Spring 2020, many colleges and universities closed their campuses and moved their courses online. Other universities opted to offer a hybrid of online and in-person learning to limit students on campus (Hodges et al., 2020). The pandemic is ongoing, forcing higher education to continue remote learning, causing significant changes to enrollment and access to higher education, specifically to first-generation college students (FGCS). The proposed research defines FGCS as students who do not have a parent that graduated from a traditional four-year college. The research will build on existing studies to identify the challenges and issues that FGCS face due to COVID-19 at a private, Jesuit, Catholic university and a public university that offer resources and programs specific to FGCS.
This literature review will focus on the virus, the history of diversity in the United States, the current state of diversity in higher education, and how the virus has impacted FGCS access to higher education. The review confirms that FGCS have unique challenges in their access to and success in higher education and that these challenges are increasing due to COVID-19.
COVID-19
Understanding the history and timeline of COVID-19 is essential to understanding the virus's impact on higher education. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020) chronicles the timeline of the virus and the latest information on new cases, vaccines, and distribution. CDC COVID Data Tracker. (n.d.) is updated daily with the latest news on the number of cases and deaths by state. This information is essential to know since students apply to The George Washington University from all over the country.
The impact of COVID-19 on college admissions and diversity is just beginning to be studied. While many of the studies are not peer-reviewed, the information is timely and informative. Friga (2020) surveyed 285 presidents and chancellors who are members of the Presidents' Trust of the Association of American Colleges & Universities in March 2020 when colleges and universities across the country were closing campuses and implementing virtual online learning. The majority of those surveyed, 84 percent, anticipate a decrease in enrollment for both new and returning students. A decline in enrollment will hurt expected revenue, but the participants seem optimistic. Just over 50 percent expect decreases of revenue between 10 and 20 percent, with only 18 percent of respondents saying they expect revenue losses greater than 20 percent. Additional studies need to be reviewed throughout the pandemic to continue to measure this impact.
Kim et al. (2020) used data sets from a student survey completed in April 2020 to determine the impact of COVID-19 on college enrollment. The authors conclude that students' ability to succeed in a remote-learning environment differs significantly by income levels. Over 60 percent of students from lower-income households report not getting the necessary equipment for remote learning. Almost 35 percent of students from low-income families do not have reliable internet access. Over 55 percent say their home environment does not support remote learning. The authors will continue to research this topic.
McCarthy (2020) provides a real-time analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on FGCS through a webinar panel of student affairs administrators. The panel found that students are experiencing the following issues: 1. Anxiety about the availability of housing and summer bridge programs; 2. Access to computers and study space; 3. Delayed graduation when a family needs extra income; and 4. Lack of community when learning is virtual. The opinions and solutions offered are based on what the panelists observe and implement in their institutions. Several panelists see the pandemic as an opportunity to address access and equity in higher education.
Aucejo et al. (2020) conducted a survey to study the causal effects of COVID-19 on enrollment and graduation decisions, academic performance, major choice, study and social habits, remote learning experiences, current labor market participation, and expectations about future employment. The study focused on how these effects differ between existing socioeconomic divides and whether the pandemic has made those existing inequalities worse. The authors confirmed that lower-income students are 55 percent more likely to delay graduation due to COVID-19, and 41 percent are more likely to report that COVID-19 impacted their major choice. COVID-19 almost doubled the gap between higher and lower-income students' expected GPA. COVID-19 is making the socioeconomic disparities in higher education worse. Addressing the economic and health impacts of COVID-19 could prevent the widening existing gaps in higher education. This study is one of the first peer-reviewed papers on the effect of COVID-19 on college students' experiences. It confirms the conclusions from the non-peer-reviewed literature from Kim.
The socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19 may influence the virus's impact on higher education. Martin et al. (2020) create and use a microeconomic model to estimate the direct effect of distancing on household income, savings, consumption, and poverty over two periods: a crisis period during which individuals experience a drop in revenue and use their savings to maintain consumption; and a recovery period when households save to replenish their depleted savings to a pre-crisis level. The study concludes that the virus would lead to a massive economic downturn without social protection, increasing the poverty rate from 17.1% to 25.9% during a simulated 3-month lockdown. The average recovery time for households is almost one year. Government benefits at the state and federal levels would decrease the magnitude and longevity of the crisis. However, changes in consumer behavior and a general slowdown of economic activities will impact long-term recovery.
There is a lack of studies on the economic impact of COVID-19. This literature review includes information on previous national disasters. Gansemer-Topf et al. (2018) used data sets to study the 2008 recession and its impact on higher education tuition, enrollments, revenues, and expenditures. The study concluded that institutions impacted by external economic changes adjust revenues, staffing, and spending during economic transitions. The study also determined that the economic recession did not severely impact higher education institutions from an enrollment and retention perspective. The study did not consider subpopulations of students or how students paid for college. The authors acknowledge that additional research is needed to determine how expenditures and revenues during a crisis impact retention rates for students from different income levels, ethnicities and if the situation altered students' college choice process or how they paid for college.
One of the economic challenges students face in their pursuit of higher education is the high tuition cost. Bennett et al. (2015) study the impact of the financial burden of the high cost of a college education on students' academic performances. Higher education costs are increasing while real median income decreases, causing students to repay larger amounts of student debt, which can harm economic growth. The authors conclude that financially stressed students were more likely to be employed, worked longer hours, and received significantly lower grades in principles of economics courses. These students were disproportionately females, minorities, and FGCS, who attend college at a below-average rate. The research indicates that students' financial stress needs to decrease to help them get the education they need to be successful members of the economy. The authors' suggestions include improving students' financial literacy on financial aid and loans at both the high school and college levels. Increasing financial assistance at the federal level will help students from low-income families afford college. States need to improve their higher education funding so colleges can stop the higher than inflation-adjusted tuition increases. Further study on the economic impact of COVID-19 on students' access to higher education will offer additional solutions.
The switch to online learning is also a mitigating factor of COVID-19. Blankenberg et al. (2020) use Gaus's ecological approach to discuss the impact of COVID-19 on higher education. This approach identifies catastrophic events as change agents that force systems to react to achieve a new equilibrium. This mirrors McCarthy's (2020) analysis that the pandemic is an opportunity for institutions to address access and equity in higher education. Because of COVID-19, higher education had to shift from traditional delivery to distance instruction. Student demand for online education has been growing. The impact of COVID-19 could increase that growth. Some institutions already use online education but will need to expand and adjust what they already do. For other institutions, they will need to adapt at a larger capacity. Large-scale studies of community college students have shown that students with lower GPAs, males, and African American students suffer steep declines in fully online courses. Enrollment declines could escalate these inequities, especially for students of lower socioeconomic status. The study concludes that universities need to be prepared to deliver additional services to address the potential adverse outcomes.
Hodges et al. (2020) discuss the necessary elements of planned online learning and what is missing from emergency remote teaching due to COVID-19. Lack of traditional support resources and lack of a sense of community are two such areas. The authors conclude that conventional online learning cannot be compared to the emergency remote learning that is taking place due to COVID-19. While this article is not peer-reviewed, it is timely, and the information provided on the differences between planned online learning and emergency remote teaching is essential to know. It will inform what is missing from the current online experience for students.
It is essential to understand how students are reacting to online learning due to COVID-19. AguileraHermida (2020) uses student surveys to focus on the challenges and opportunities facing college students after COVID-19 forced them to learn virtually. The author defines three themes of challenges related to COVID-19:
Hands (2020) looks at the impact of the abrupt transition to online education for FGCS due to COVID-19, focusing on the students' cultural assets instead of a deficit lens. The six cultural assets are reflexivity, optimism, academic resilience, goal-orientation, civic-mindedness, and proactivity. The author discusses issues confronting FGCS, including the digital divide where there is no access to reliable internet or a computer. The article uses the concept of community cultural wealth (CCW) as its theoretical frame of reference for giving structure to how educators and libraries can draw on FGCS assets during times of transition.
Suggestions for librarians include building alliances with trusted staff and advisors to educate staff within FGCS' networks on library resources; partnering with faculty to create assignments using transparent assignment design; creating opportunities where students can reflect on how their research process has changed due to sudden online-only access; and working with FGCS to share with their peers' tips and tricks based on their post-transition library, research and online experiences. This article is peer-reviewed and focuses on solutions to issues faced by FGCS as a result of COVID-19. Institutions can implement these solutions quickly.
History of Diversity in the United States
The impact of COVID-19 could exacerbate existing inequities in higher education. It is essential to understand the history of systemic racism in the United States to address these injustices. Noltemeyer et al. (2020) review the inequality in education based on race and ethnicity, linguistic diversity, gender, and disabilities. This book chapter ties the history of race and ethnicity in America to justice and equality. The authors give examples of oppression and unequal access to quality education for American Indians, Chinese Americans, and Latinos, emphasizing the discriminatory treatment of Black students. From the 1960s through the mid-1980s, American schools have become more integrated. This trend has dissipated in recent years. Contributing factors include changes in residential patterns, increased school choice, and recent court decisions that reversed earlier improvements.
Inequality in education is not a new concept. Reardon et al., (2014) look at school segregation trends since the Supreme Court's 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. Before Brown segregating schools by race was universal in the South and elevated in other parts of the country. The study found that Brown had a minimal immediate effect on school segregation. The most significant declines in black-white school segregation occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s following the Supreme Court's 1968 Green v. County School Board of New Kent County decision, requiring school districts to adopt more effective integration plans. Racial tolerance has also increased over time, but the opposition to busing and other school desegregation practices has increased.
Hammond et al. (2020) also discuss inequality over time in education for African Americans. The authors take this a step further and focus on the implications are of that inequality. Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were created in the mid-19th century in the South to allow black Americans to enroll in higher education. The 1944 G.I. Bill included tuition benefits for vocational schools or undergraduate programs for all veterans who had been on active duty. The benefits were not equally distributed to African American veterans due to racial discrimination. The Supreme Court's decision in 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson established the precedent of "separate but equal" that essentially legalized racial segregation in the public school system. Brown v. Board of Education ruled in 1954 that racial segregation in schools is unconstitutional. This ruling was met with strong resistance, especially in the South.
Desegregation was a slow process, and many schools remained racially segregated for decades following the court's decision. The authors also address the disparity in public school funding. This funding varies from state to state and across communities due to variations in income, property values, and tax rates. Lower-income neighborhoods suffer the most and disproportionately affects African Americans. Years of racial inequality resulted in the disparity in academic performance between students of different races. The authors refer to this disparity as the achievement gap due to the disproportionate number of people of color living in low-income neighborhoods with less access to adequately funded schools and less access to educational resources at home. The psychological burden of this achievement gap on students of color contributes to perpetuating the gap.
Events in the past year are having an impact on public opinion. Cohn et al. (2020) review the impact of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement on support for racial diversity. The authors used data from a daily tracking poll of registered voters to assess support for BLM. Public opinion on criminal justice issues and race has been moving left since the first protests erupted over Trayvon Martin and Michael Brown's fatal shootings. This increase skyrocketed after the death of George Floyd in police custody on May 25, 2020. During the last week of May 2020 and the first week of June 2020, BLM support increased 28 percent, almost as much as between 2018 and 2020. The authors refer to a Monmouth University poll that found 76 percent of Americans consider racism and discrimination a "big problem," up 26 points from 2015. Additional polls reviewed in this study show that most Americans believe that police are more likely to use deadly force against African Americans and that there is a lot of discrimination against black Americans in society. When BLM began in 2013, a majority of voters did not believe this to be true. This article is not peer-reviewed, but the data analysis validates the increase in BLM's support and attention and the change in public opinion on racial issues.
Diversity, Equity, and Access to Higher Education
There continues to be a large national disparity in diversity, equity, and access to higher education. Musu-Gillette et al. (2017) used statistics to examine current conditions and changes over time in educational activities and outcomes for different racial/ethnic groups in the United States. The study used demographic population data from 1990 to 2016. The study found that the total college enrollment rate for Asian 18-24-year-olds is higher than White, Black, Hispanic and American Indian/Alaska peers. A more significant percentage of undergraduates are female than male across all racial/ethnic groups. The gap was widest for Black students and American Indian/Alaska Native students. More than 60 percent of the students identified as female, than just under 40 percent identifying as male. The gap was narrowest for Asian students, with 52 percent identifying as female and 48 percent identifying as male. The study concludes that some traditionally disadvantaged racial/ethnic groups have made strides in educational achievement over the past few decades, but that gaps persist. This article provides useful background information on demographics before COVID-19.
Monarrez et al. (2020) used data from 2009 to 2017 to focus on a narrow pool of students who might attend a given school to measure the difference in a racial or ethnic group's share of enrollment from that group's percentage of the college market population. The authors defined a market for each college based on the distance most students are willing to travel to attend different institutions. The racial and ethnic composition of the college was compared with that of the college's market. The results indicate factors that affect a college's student body composition goes beyond local demographic design. Admissions and tuition policies, state appropriations for higher education beliefs about the value of college, and a local labor market demand all play a role. The study identified key enrollment patterns of over-and-underrepresentation among different racial and ethnic groups. Black students continue to be severely underrepresented at more selective colleges. Black representation at public and private universities is nearly identical. Hispanic students have increased at less-selective public colleges and community colleges since 2009, but the number of Hispanic students is still low at more selective universities. White students continue to be overrepresented at more selective colleges and have become more underrepresented at community colleges. Asian students are also overrepresented at more selective institutions. Native American students have become more underrepresented at more selective colleges. Pacific Islanders are slightly underrepresented at public and private universities across all sectors. All minority groups are increasingly overrepresented at for-profit institutions. The study does not address the inequity within higher education. However, the review uses data sets from surveys conducted annually by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics. It provides information on the under-and-overrepresentation among racial and ethnic groups before COVID-19.
Admissions criteria used by colleges and universities may have an impact on the institutions' diversity. Rosinger, K.O. et al. (2020) used data sets from 2008 to 2016 to examine how the importance of various admissions criteria relate to enrollment among racially and economically marginalized students. The findings indicate ambiguous criteria that compromise a more comprehensive approach to admissions do very little to eliminate existing enrollment inequities and, in some cases, may increase these inequities. The criteria include subjective assessments of interviews, essays, and recommendations. The use of these ambiguous criteria led to lower levels of Pell Grant recipient enrollment at some institutions. Extracurricular involvement and subjective evaluations could advantage privileged families but may do little to alter other students' enrollment. Specific evaluation criteria that focused on test scores related to race and class could reproduce the existing inequalities. First-generation student status may not boost enrollment among other marginalized students at public and less-selective colleges. The authors conclude that moving away from legacy admissions that give students preference with family connections to the institution, de-emphasizing standardized test scores, and considering academic rigor could be strategies to support low-income student enrollment at public colleges.
Latinx students face specific challenges to college access. Rutter et al. (2020) used qualitative data provided by high school counselors on their role in disseminating college information to Latinx students. The report highlights the critical role of social capital. School counselors serve an overwhelming number of students. Parental involvement is vital, and early intervention is crucial. Parents and students have misperceptions about college. Finances are the largest roadblock to college access. Fear of leaving home is also a barrier for Latinx students. The study concludes that school counselors face challenges in addressing inequality in college access, especially for first-generation Latinx students.
The lack of diversity in higher education faculty is a factor in diversity in students who enroll in college. Nunez et al. (2012) used data on Latinos' demographics in higher education to focus on Latinas, the discrimination, and harmful stereotypes they face because they are both female and Latina. The authors found that Latino enrollment is increasing, and Latinos now outnumber African Americans in the population. Latinos usually start in community colleges or less selective 4-year institutions with lower persistence and completion rates. The political climate in the U.S. is hostile for Latinos. Some key states have banned affirmative action policies. Stereotypes about Latinos as depicted in the media can harm Latino students' academic achievement and completion rates. The success of Latina faculty is directly linked to the success of Latina students.
Chen, A. (2017) reinforces the research conducted by Nunez et al. (2012) on the need for more diverse faculty. This study provides a qualitative analysis of diversity in higher education and effective practices in instructional leadership. The article also offers suggestions for institutional leaders to integrate diversity into their campus culture. Three standards define higher education institutions' role and the relationships between higher education and diverse communities:
First-Generation College Students
To understand the impact COVID-19 has on FGCS, we must first understand the unique challenges these students regularly face. Murphy et al. (2006) surveyed students attending a doctoral-granting public four-year historically Black university to determine whether differences exist in the academic expectations of FGCS and non-first-generation students (NFGCS). The article gives background information on the differences between FGCS and NFGCS in academic preparation and academic integration. The authors defined FGCS as students with parents with no college experience and students with at least one parent with some college experience but no college degree. NFGCS were defined as students who had a parent with a bachelor's degree. Students who had parents with no college experience were more likely to expect to stay at their institution until graduation instead of transferring. They were also more likely to expect to spend less time socializing with friends than other students. The other academic expectations were similar between the two groups of students. This information will contrast and compare how these characteristics have changed or stayed the same due to COVID-19.
The stressors that FGCS face are unique compared to NFGCS. House et al., (2020) study students from a midsize public university that completed at least an intake session at the counseling center. Just over 25 percent identified as FGCS. The study found that FGCS reported significantly more academic distress, works hours, and financial distress than NFGCS. They also have the highest dropout rates in postsecondary education and are recognized as an at-risk group. FGCS tend to be minorities, children of immigrants, and to come from low socioeconomic backgrounds. They also tend to be older, work full-time and live off-campus, compares to NFGCS. FGCS face social, economic, cultural, and academic challenges in their transition to college. They must work more hours to cover their expenses and have more responsibilities and obligations than NFGCS. The study found that FGCS show more resilience and determination to be successful despite an environment that underestimated their efforts. FGCS can overcome their feelings of incompetency and perform as well academically as NFGCS. The authors determined it is essential for higher education institutions to understand the unique needs of FGCS and accommodate them as much as possible. The authors collected data in Fall 2016, Spring 2017, and Fall 2017, so it does not include the impact of COVID-19.
FGCS also have unique motivators. Cataldi et al., (2018) use existing data sets to examine the personal, enrollment, academic, and career characteristics of FGCS. The authors compared the experiences and outcomes with those of two groups who had attended college: students with at least one parent who earned a bachelor's degree and students with at least one parent who attended college but no parent had earned a bachelor's degree. The report describes the experiences of FGCS during and after school enrollment, focusing on enrollment and labor market outcomes, compared to their peers whose parents enrolled in or completed college. Among students that were high school sophomores in 2002, 72 percent of students whose parents had never attended college had enrolled in postsecondary education by 2012, compared to 84 percent of students whose parents had some college education and 93 percent of students whose parents had earned a bachelor's degree.
It is also essential to understand what factors influence FGCS when they choose a college. Garza et al. (2018) use existing data sets to examine the factors influencing FGCS' college choice. These factors include family responsibilities, financial hardships, and other environmental considerations. The article found that FGCS attend colleges at closer distances to home than students whose parents are college-educated. More FGCS recognize the importance of living at home while going to school than NFGCS. The study also focused on whether these factors impact GPA and degree attainment. Living at home while attending college benefits socioeconomically disadvantaged students because of the reduction/savings in tuition, rent, utilities, or commuting expenses. Living at home or close to family while in college is also accepted in students' family roots and cultural norms. However, FGCS living at home participate less in student organizations and other areas of campus life.
The factors that increase access to higher education for FGCS need to be determined. Lozano-Partida (2018) analyzed data from interviews with FGCS from a midsize public university. The data were coded into themes and patterns to gain insight into the factors that students identify as key in increasing access to higher education. FGCS find motivation through their families. There are positive experiences and the desire to have a "better life" by going to college and changing their current economic situation. The author concludes that the K-12 college counseling process starts too late for most FGCS. FGCS that attend college fail to understand higher education's financial aspects and limit their college selection to affordable ones. Mitchall et al. (2018) confirm the impact family has on FGCS motivation to go to college. This article concludes that parents/guardians and other family members greatly influence students' motivation during college planning. Parents/family members provide students with autonomy during college planning by supporting the student's college choice. Parents supported their students' choice in major and encouraged them to "better their lives" by attending college. Parents reassured their students that they were "college material" by setting high academic achievement standards at an early age. Students could be influenced by their siblings by either following in their footsteps or because they wanted to be an example.
Universities and colleges can play a role in FGCS academic success. Petty, T. (2014) conducted a literature review focused on the role institutions play in motivating FGCS through intrinsic and external factors that encourage students to remain in college. The literature reviewed in this article discusses why it is essential for institutions to create Bridge Programs for FGCS. The author concludes that FGCS are not adequately prepared for college, and these programs help students face their challenges and weaknesses. Overcoming intimation and barriers are skills that FGCS lack but need to survive and be successful in college. Bridge programs can provide the assistance and resources FGCS require to be successful. This article is pre-COVID but explains why Bridge Programs are needed to address FGCS' challenges and issues.
Schelbe, L. et al. (2019) study the perceptions of FGCS of an academic retention program. This article builds on Petty, T. (2014) 's research, giving examples of how a bridge program can impact the successful transition to college and academic success of FGCS. The article defines FGCS as students who are the first to attend college, and neither parent attended college or earned a college degree. The authors used focus groups and interviews of 25 students in GenOne, an FGCS academic retention program at a large southeastern public university of 40,000 students. The goal of the GenOne program is to promote academic success and increase retention of FGCS. The cornerstone of the program is the Summer Bridge Program. This intensive eight-week program provides experiences to incoming FGCS to help them prepare for college's academic rigors. The students are given an orientation to the program, university, and community. Other features of the GenOne program include mandatory study time, peer education, shared living, and academic advising. Students reported elements of the program that contributed to their academic success and retention include:
Conclusion
COVID-19 is a new phenomenon that will continue to be studied as time goes on. The literature available confirms that the coronavirus continues to impact higher education. The literature also demonstrates that FGCS face unique challenges and barriers that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. Some institutions have implemented programs specifically for FGCS that contribute to their academic success and retention. These challenges and issues of FGCS need further qualitative study to understand the changes that universities and colleges need to make to increase FGCS' access to higher education and ensure they can succeed.
Methodology
This qualitative study is a thematic analysis of data from first-generation college students (FGCS) to determine the factors influencing their college enrollment decision during COVID-19. I will conduct surveys of FGCS to understand the impact of COVID-19 on their enrollment in college. I chose a phenomenological research design because it is most appropriate for examining a phenomenon (COVID-19) and the experiences of individuals (FGCS) who have all experienced the phenomenon (Creswell 2018).
Qualitative research has distinct characteristics. Data will be collected in a natural setting. I will create the instrument (survey) to gather the information and interpret it. The survey will ask open-ended questions so participants can share their stories in their own words. I will review the data and organize it into codes and themes common to all data sources. My research focuses on learning the meaning FGCS hold about the impact of COVID-19 on their college enrollment decision. Qualitative research is an emergent design that may change or shift as data is collected (Creswell 2018). Questions can change, forms of data collection may shift, and individuals or sites used may be adjusted.
COVID-19 is a new phenomenon impacting college enrollment that has not been sufficiently studied; therefore, a qualitative approach is needed to explore and understand COVID-19 and its impact. Thus far, the only research has been on the initial effects of COVID when most universities moved to virtual learning. I need to understand the FGCS' experiences throughout the pandemic to identify critical factors that impacted their ability to enroll in college. As the literature review shows, FGCS do not have equal access to higher education. Some unique barriers and motivators impact their ability to enroll in college (Hands, 2020; Mitchall et al., 2018, Schelbe et al., 2019). This study will identify the key factors that students found to impact their enrollment status during COVID-19.
Knowing and understanding these key barriers or motivators that FGCS identify as impacting their enrollment decision is essential in providing equitable access to higher education enrollment. This study will offer universities and colleges the necessary knowledge to identify changes that need to be made to programs and processes to address these factors to combat this inequity.
Research Questions
The central research question guiding this study is, are there factors that (FGCS) identify as significant contributors to their decision to enroll or not enroll in college during COVID-19. The sub-questions will be open-ended to gain as much information as possible from all participants. Because my participants will be students offered admission to a university, the sub-questions will focus on their enrollment decision and the factors that influenced that decision.
1. Did you decide to enroll in higher education for Fall 2021? Yes or No
2. What factors influenced your enrollment decision for Fall 2021?
3. If your choice of attending institution changed during the pandemic, please explain why.
4. How likely are you to enroll in higher education for Spring 2022? Likert Scale
a. Please explain what influenced your enrollment decision for Spring 2022.
5. If you enrolled for Fall 2021, how like are you to stay enrolled for Spring 2022?
a. Please explain what influenced your enrollment decision for Spring 2022.
Sampling
This qualitative study will be conducted through interviews and surveys of students participating in FGCS programs at the University of Virginia (UVA), the George Washington University (GW), and Georgetown University (Georgetown). I will offer incentives to students that participate in the surveys and interviews. The program directors at each university agreed to assist with my research and send information to their students. The student sample should be at least 500 students for my study.
Georgetown's IRB requires proof of Bradley's IRB approval to allow their students to be part of my research. No other paperwork is required. The UVA IRB requires copies of my full IRB protocol submission and an IRB determination letter from Bradley University. GW requires an IRB determination letter from Bradley University.
UVA is a public university located in Charlottesville, Virginia, that supports FGCS through the First-Generation Student Support unit of the Office of the Dean of Students (ODOS). The team supports FGCS by providing programming, social events, and connecting the first-generation community known as HoosFirst. HoosFirst includes FGCS, faculty, and staff. Support for the university's 1,500 FGCS is provided through intentional connections and educational programming to help FGCS transition to UVA and thrive in their academic, social, and personal lives during their time at UVA. The Associate Dean of Students has agreed to promote my research and ask students to volunteer for interviews in their FGCS student newsletter. Students will reach out to me via email to indicate their interest in scheduling an interview. I anticipate at least 10 percent of the students will participate, giving me a sample size of 150 students.
GW is a private university located in Washington, DC, with a total enrollment of 26,000 undergraduate and graduate students. There are 1,750 FGCS enrolled as undergraduate students. The Founding Scholars program welcomes incoming first-generation college students to life at GW through pre-orientation activities on-campus and outings in DC. Students will build community with other first-gen students, connect with faculty & staff, and learn valuable academic and campus resources. The coordinator for the Founding Scholars will send my survey directly to the students on my behalf. I anticipate at least 10 percent of the students will participate, giving me a sample size of 175 students.
The GW admissions office will send out a feedback survey in June 2021 to the 12,000 students offered admission for Fall 2021. Reference will be made to my research in the survey, and a question will be added for FGCS asking how COVID-19 impacted their college enrollment decision. GW Admissions will share the data with me in July. GW anticipates 4,000 students will respond. I predict that 10 percent of the respondents will be FGCS, giving me a sample size of 400 students.
Georgetown is a private, Jesuit, Catholic university located in Washington, DC that offers two programs specifically for FGCS, the Community Scholars Program (CSP) and the Georgetown Scholars Program (GSP).
The mission of CSP is to enroll a more racially and socioeconomically diverse student body by providing additional educational opportunities for a multicultural cohort of FGCS. The CSP experience begins with a five-week academic summer program before the students' first year at Georgetown to assist their transition to higher education. Students take classes for credit, attend orientation workshops, and begin forming bonds with each other, teachers, and administrators to help sustain them through college. The program supports students throughout their Georgetown careers with academic advising, mentoring and personal counseling, study groups, workshops, and seminars.
GSP provides programmatic support for FGCS, working with students after being admitted to CPS through advising and mentorship opportunities, community building, necessary funding, and advocacy work. Both programs are interested in learning more about the impact of COVID-19 on their enrollment and are amenable to sending my survey. There are approximately 70 students enrolled through CSP each year. Students are tagged by Admissions and invited to join GSP and are offered the 1789 Scholarship as part of the invitation. A little over 140 students accept the scholarship and are inducted into the program each year. I anticipate at least 10 percent of students in both programs will participate, giving me a sample size of 21 students. GSP has agreed to share their yield of FGCS from the last five years up to Fall 2021. I will compare this information to see any yield changes from the pre-COVID admissions cycle to the post-COVID admissions cycle.
Data Collection
The purpose of a phenomenological study is to learn from the shared experience of a group of people to a specific phenomenon (Creswell, 2018). FGCS share unique barriers and motivators that impact their ability to enroll in higher education. COVID-19 has exacerbated this inequity. To better understand the factors that FGCS are experiencing during the pandemic, qualitative surveys and interviews are essential. These inquiry tools will allow me to understand the students' experiences during COVID and identify themes and similarities in their ability to enroll in higher education.
My surveys will be distributed to FGCS by the CSP and GSP at Georgetown, the Founding Scholars program at GW. I will promote my research and ask for volunteers to sit for an interview through the HoosFirst newsletter at UVA. Using these FGCS programs will ensure the participants are FGCS, so their responses will help me understand the impact COVID-19 had on their college enrollment decision. The programs will clarify to the students that there is no obligation to participate in the survey or interview and that there are no penalties if they do not participate.
I will provide incentives to all students that complete the survey or sit for an interview. The incentives will include registration in a large gift card raffle for all respondents. If this does not produce a significant number of participants, I will offer a smaller, individual gift card to each student that responds to the survey. By incentivizing students to respond to my survey, I should have a significant sample of students to draw from as research participants.
I will not ask for any personal identifiers to ensure the privacy of the students. There will be a consent form that each participant will sign acknowledging their consent to act as a research subject. The form will include the study's goal and how the information will be used to show the students why the research is essential and why they need to tell their story. The survey will consist of five open-ended questions to obtain as much information as possible from the students. At the end of the survey, students will be given the option to reach out to me via email or cell phone if they are interested in sharing more information. Additional outreach is not a requirement to receive an incentive or participate in the study. The interview questions will be identical to the questions in the survey.
Data Analysis and Management
I am a first-generation college student, and this research is very personal to me. I experienced barriers to enrolling in college that I was able to work through. Not all FGCS can overcome those barriers, especially when a global pandemic exacerbates them. COVID-19 brings an added phenomenon to the inequity in access to higher education. I do not have any preconceived notions of what information the responses will contain since it has been over 40 years since I was applying to college. I will look for how my survey and interview answers connect to my research questions and common themes. I will start analyzing surveys and interviews as they are completed, writing memos that I might include as part of the final report.
My analysis will use a systematic process to arrange, understand and code the information collected. As Creswell (2018) states, qualitative data analysis is a process of sequential steps that should be followed. I will organize and prepare the data for analysis by sorting and arranging the data based on which university offered the respondent admission. I will read through the surveys and interview notes to identify the general ideas that come out of the responses.
Coding the data is the next step of the process. I will not use predetermined codes in analyzing the data. Codes will be developed only based on the emerging information. Data from the surveys will be hand-coded through reading and re-reading the surveys and interview notes. If a large number of surveys are completed, I will use a coding software program to simplify and expedite the coding process. The software will also be used to store the data and will ensure the privacy of the respondents.
Common categories or patterns in the responses will be identified and labeled with an in vivo term to reflect the responses' language. The coding will generate common themes that will be compared to determine similarities or differences. I will use the memos and notes taken during the review and coding process to create a narrative to discuss the analysis's findings in my final report.
Ethics
This study will be conducted in full compliance with the Institutional Review Board (IRB) guidelines at Bradley University, Georgetown, and UVA. All data created and collected will be saved on a password-protected laptop computer for five years, as recommended by the American Psychological Association (Creswell, 2018). No personal identifiers will be used for the participants. I understand I have a responsibility to ensure the participants' safety and security to maintain the participants' privacy and confidentiality. Participation in the survey will be optional for all students.
All participants will be treated equally and sign a consent form acknowledging consent to act as a research subject, including the study's goal and how I will use their information. It is optional for students to follow up with me with any additional information beyond the survey or interview questions and is not required for participation in the survey or the incentives to complete the survey.
The surveys and requests for interviews will be sent directly to the students from the FGCS programs at their respective universities with clear instructions that their participation is optional. Incentives will be offered to students that complete the survey or interview and will be equally distributed between the two research sites.
My data analysis will report multiple perspectives and all findings, both positive and negative. Copies of my study will be provided to all participants and the programs distributing the surveys.
Timeline
I plan on submitting my application to Bradley's IRB by the end of May 2021. This timeline will give me sufficient time to get approval and submit the approved paperwork to UVA, GW, and Georgetown for their review and approval. GW Admissions will include information on my research and my central research question in their June outreach to admitted students. At their request, the FGCS programs at UVA, GW, and Georgetown will send out my survey and request interviews with their students in early September 2021 because the summer is the busiest time of the year. September is also the beginning of their Fall semester, well before students are entrenched in their courses and worrying about exams.
According to my program of study, I will take ENC 705: Action Research: Data Collection in Action Research over the summer. I want to make sure I have a firm grasp of data collection if logistical issues need to be addressed. Collecting data in early Fall will allow me to conduct follow-up surveys and interviews if necessary or if requested by participants and stay on track to complete my dissertation on time.
I will start analyzing data as the students complete the surveys and interviews. This process could take several weeks. I anticipate having all data collected by October 30, 2021.
Summary
This study will address how COVID-19 has impacted college admissions diversity, specifically targeting higher education access for FGCS. Increased support of Black Lives Matter and the onset of COVID-19 have increased awareness of the inequity in access to higher education. The emphasis on diversity in college admissions has grown exponentially, and universities are taking a more strategic look at increasing diversity in their study body, including first-generation students. Racial diversity and inequity in higher education is not a new concept. However, the impact of COVID-19 on access to higher education for FGCS needs additional study since the pandemic is a recent phenomenon.
I will use a phenomenological, qualitative research design to gain as much information as possible on the experiences of FGCS during COVID-19. Data collection will be conducted through surveys and interviews of FGCS offered admission to three universities that offer programs designed explicitly for FGCS. Data will be analyzed using a coding system to identify common themes and patterns in the responses. The findings will be reported in a narrative to provide Universities and colleges the necessary knowledge to identify changes that need to be made to programs and processes to address the barriers FGCS face in college enrollment.
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COVID-19 is a deadly health crisis that continues to spread across the globe. The virus has disrupted everyone’s lives, and the number of cases and deaths continue to rise. As of October 2020, there were over 7,000,000 cases of COVID-19 in the United States and over 200,000 deaths (CDC Data Tracker). As a precaution, in Spring 2020, many colleges and universities sent students home and moved their courses online or moved to a hybrid of online and in-person learning to limit the number of students on campus (Hodges et al., 2020).
This disruption in learning will drastically impact college admissions. Colleges and universities anticipate a substantial decline in enrollment. Over 80 percent of university presidents surveyed by the Chronicle of Higher Education (Friga, 2020, April 3) expect a decrease in enrollments for new and returning students. These enrollment declines could exacerbate existing inequities in higher education.
Inequities and systemic racism have existed for decades in the United States. From the beginning of our nation’s history, Native Americans were subject to severe forms of oppression by European settlers. Their way of life was under relentless attack, resulting in substantial losses in American Indian resources, land, and lives (Noltemeyer et al., 2012). Jim Crow laws were passed at the state and local level throughout the South to restrict African American’s civic and economic rights after the United States abolished slavery in 1865. The 1896 Supreme Court’s decision in Plessy v. Ferguson upheld the Jim Crow laws by declaring the “separate but equal doctrine” as constitutional. In reality, separate was not equal when it came to education. Facilities built for African Americans were inferior in quality and grossly underfunded. This further institutionalized the economic and social inequity of African Americans (Hammond et al., 2020).
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were created in the mid-19th century in the segregated South to allow black Americans to attend college. The 1944 G.I. Bill’s provided payments to cover tuition expenses for all veterans who had been on active duty, including African Americans. By the 1940’s nearly all black college students attended college in HBCUs, the only accredited institutions that allowed black Americans to earn undergraduate and professional degrees in many states. Desegregation became the focal point of legal battles across the nation, with strong resistance in the South. Desegregation efforts encountered violence, death threats, and riots. The 1954 unanimous Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education decision that declared racial segregation of children in public schools as unconstitutional did little to reduce racial segregation, especially in the South. Desegregation is a slow process that continues today (Hammond et al., 2020).
Research has shown there is a high level of poverty in majority-minority schools due to school segregation. More minority students attend high-poverty schools, and these schools traditionally have fewer resources and lower student achievement. Because most children attend school near or in their neighborhood, schools’ economic segregation increases (Reardon & Owens, 2014).
The increased support of public opinion for the Black Lives Matter movement in 2020 has magnified the focus on diversity in higher education enrollment. COVID-19 has brought new scrutiny to the ongoing disparities in higher education. Higher education must address these disparities to reflect future students’ diversity (Cohn & Quealy, 2020, June 10).
This study will focus on the inequities and barriers that first-generation students face today. A large body of research indicates that first-generation students routinely face significant challenges in accessing postsecondary education. First-generation students are often minorities, children of immigrants, and individuals from a low socioeconomic background, and they face more significant hardships related to the financial costs of attending college (Bennett, et al., 2015; House, et al. 2020). Their families may be encouraging and supportive, but they lack the college experience knowledge to help their children navigate the college admissions process (Chen A., 2017).
A study conducted by Cataldi et al. (2018) used data from 2002 to 2012 to study first-generation students' enrollment characteristics. The study defined those students as students whose parents had not attended college, with the enrollment characteristics of students with at least one parent who earned a bachelor’s degree and students with at least one parent who attended college, defined as non-first-generation students. The number of 2002 high school sophomores, first-generation students, enrolled in postsecondary education in 2012 was 72 percent. Conversely, 93 percent of first-generation students had done so (Cataldi et al., 2018).
The impact of COVID-19 on these marginalized students has recently been the focus of research. The effect of the virus is making the socioeconomic disparities in higher education worse. This study will examine how COVID-19 has impacted the challenges and barriers First-Generation Students routinely face than NFGS. It will also address how the inequities have changed due to COVID. Are they worse or have the injustices decreased in any way? Hearing directly from students about how COVID-19 has impacted their access and enrollment in higher education will garner valuable information and possibly bring new issues and concerns to light. This study will interview first-generation students who planned to enroll in higher education for Fall 2020, Spring 2021, and Fall 2021 and those who ultimately did not enroll in any or all of those terms to determine what barriers motivators informed their decision. These dates may need to be changed depending on when surveys begin. This information will be a crucial factor for higher education administrators to develop new processes, programs, and policies to increase access for first-generation students to higher education and to assist them once they are enrolled.
Purpose Statement
This study will address how COVID-19 has impacted college admissions diversity and use an explanatory sequential mixed methods design. It will involve collecting quantitative data first and then explaining the quantitative results with in-depth qualitative data. The first quantitative phase of the study will review data from existing research to determine if there are barriers or motivators for first-generation students in the college admissions process. The second qualitative phase will help explain the quantitative results as they relate to college admissions during COVID-19. In this exploratory follow-up, the tentative plan is to explore the college admissions process after COVID-19 with first-generation students who applied and did not enroll and first-generation students who applied and enrolled in higher education between Fall 2020 Fall 2021.
Literature Review
Racial diversity and inequity in higher education is not a new concept. There continues to be a large national disparity in Black and Hispanic students enrolled at more selective colleges. While Latino enrollment in higher education has increased as the Latino population has grown, Latinos have the lowest educational attainment rate of any racial or ethnic group. The increase in diversity across American culture creates challenges and opportunities for increasing diversity in higher education. The considerable rise in public opinion supporting Black Lives Matter since George Floyd's death in May 2020 has put diversity at the forefront (Cohn & Quealey, 2020). Colleges and university consider diversity to be part of their mission to create a better society, but there is still a widespread pattern of underrepresentation of different racial and ethnic groups, specifically at more selective colleges (Chen, 2017; Cohn & Quealey, 2020; Monarrez & Washington, 2020; Musu-Gillette, et al., 2017; Nunez & Murakami-Ramalho, 2012).
College accessibility for first-generation students reinforces the inequities that continue to exist within higher education. More first-generation students are applying to college, but they earn bachelor’s degrees at a lower rate than their peers (Murphy et al. 2006). Most tend to be minorities, children of immigrants, and from low-income families. First-generation students face unique barriers to enrolling in higher education (House et al., 2020). Their parents have no institutional knowledge of the college admissions process and cannot help their students navigate the process. The admissions process can include factors that favor students from privilege over first-generation students, including legacy admissions and emphasizing standardized test scores. The college choice of first-generation students largely depends on family responsibilities and financial hardships, rather than school reputation, program specialization, or institutional fit (Garza et al., 2018; House et al., 2020; Lozano-Partida, A. 2018; Murphy et al. 2006; Rosinger et al., 2020).
Additional studies have focused on the assets and motivators of first-generation students in higher education. Parents can strongly influence first-generation students’ motivation during the college planning process by supporting their students’ decisions on college choice and encouraging them to better their lives. Parents who set high standards at an early age for their students to academically increase their students’ confidence to attend and succeed in college. Many first-generation students are optimistic, goal-oriented, civic-minded, and proactive. These motivators and assets contribute to first-generation students' success (Hands, 2020; Mitchall et al., 2018).
The disruptive effects of COVID-19 have impacted higher education in many ways, forcing institutions to abruptly switch to online learning, sending students home from campus, and negatively impacting enrollment. The socioeconomic disparities already present in higher education have been made worse by students' financial hardships and emotional challenges due to COVID. However, a catastrophic event like a recession or pandemic is a change agent that can offer an opportunity to achieve a new equality level. (Aucejo et al., 2020; Blankenberg, B. et al., 2020; Hodges et al., 2020).
Deficiencies in Studies
Despite the growth in the number of first-generation students in higher education, research has mostly focused on racial and gender diversity. While these studies' results are informative, they do not consider the specific experiences of first-generation students and higher education (Monarrez & Washington, 2020; Musu-Gillette et al., 2017; Nunez & Murakami-Ramalho, 2012). The research conducted on first-generation students focused on the barriers and challenges those students face during the college admissions process and transition to college in a non-pandemic world (Garza & Fullerton, 2018; Lozano-Partida, 2018; Mitchall & Jaeger, 2018; Murphy & Hicks, 2006). The data from these studies is pre-COVID. More current research is needed to see if the results are still valid. The impact of the disruptive effects of COVID-19 will add additional challenges and barriers that students have not yet faced.
The only current research has been on the initial impact of COVID when most, if not all, higher education institutions closed their campuses and sent students home, offering virtual learning for the semester. COVID-19 is a relatively new crisis and continues to evolve (Aucejo et al., 2020).
COVID-19 has disrupted the American way of life in every possible way. The impact has been felt most by those in lower socioeconomic groups. Many cities and states were on lockdown, and travel was not allowed except in extreme emergencies. Non-essential businesses closed, and many did not reopen once the lockdown ended. The economy has taken a downturn, impacting higher education (Martin et al., 2020).
Research of previous higher education crises did not have the same universal impact on everyday life as COVID-19. Gansemer-Topf et al. (2018) studied the effect of the 2008 recession on higher education. The study found that low-income families are usually most impacted in a downturn; therefore, access and retention for students from a low socioeconomic status should also be affected. This study will determine whether this applies to the effect of COVID-19 on low-income families.
A significant result of COVID-19 has been the abrupt change to online learning or a hybrid of online/in-person learning. While some colleges and universities offer online learning as a regular part of their curriculum and could make the change with ease, many others were scrambling to figure it out. Studies conducted on students' experience with online learning did not focus on first-generation students (AguileraHermida, 2020). Online learning could have a more significant impact on student outcomes, especially first-generation students. Research into the effects of online learning on first-generation students is needed to determine the long-term impact on their access to higher education.
This study will focus on the impact COVID-19 had on college admissions between Fall 2020 and Fall 2021. Ongoing research on the residual effect of the virus will need to be conducted to determine the long-term impact on first-generation students.
Rationale for Methodology
I intend to use a qualitative methodology design. Through my literature review, I learned that this is the best method to collect detailed data to understand a research problem from multiple perspectives (Rutter et al., 2020). I will use students from the George Washington University, Georgetown University, and the University of Virginia to get insight from students at both public and private institutions of higher education. My research results will produce valuable information that will be used by these institutions almost immediately to effect change. The goal of this study is to create research that these institutions can use to make a difference and enhance first-generation students' lives.
I will use existing data from the three universities on admissions and enrollment status of first-generation students for Fall 2020. I will use qualitative research to follow up on that data to explain the barriers or motivators related to college admissions during COVID-19. It is important to hear directly from students to fully understand the barriers and challenges they face in the college admissions process. I will explore the college admissions process after COVID-19 through a survey with students that applied and did not enroll and students that applied and enrolled in higher education between Fall 2020 and Fall 2021. Independent variables will include COVID-19 and student status of first-generation and non-first generation. Dependent variables will consist of on-campus or off-campus domicile status, Fall 2020 enrollment, Fall 2021 enrollment, change in school choice, failure to enroll in Fall 2020, and failure to enroll in Fall 2021.
I will provide a contextual paragraph in the survey explaining the onset of COVID-19 and the CDC guidelines put in place, and information on universities moving from on-campus learning to online or a hybrid of in-person/virtual learning. The first survey questions will ask specific information that can be answered either through a checklist or as yes or no. This information is necessary to group the responses into the appropriate category for analysis.
My second set of questions will ask about the participants' demographics, whether or not they are first-generation students and the specific experiences of each participant with COVID-19 and higher education. The three universities admissions department will send my survey to targeted students who accepted admission to enroll in Fall 2021 and determine the different barriers and motivators for those who enrolled and those who did not. These questions will be open-ended to gain as much information as possible from all participants. My questions will include demographic questions on race, gender, and first-generation student status. Additional questions will consist of their enrollment or intention of enrollment for Fall 2020.
1.In March 2021, were you enrolled, or did you intend to enroll in higher education for Fall 2021?
Yes or No
2.Did you enroll in higher education for Fall 2021?
Yes or No
3.If you did not enroll in higher education for Fall 2021, please explain why you did not enroll.
4.If you did not enroll in higher education for Fall 2021, how likely are you to enroll in higher education for Spring 2021?
Extremely Likely Very Likely Neutral Very Unlikely Extremely Unlikely
- Please explain what influenced you to enroll or not enroll for Spring 2020.
- If you did enroll in higher education for Fall 2021, please answer the following questions:
- Did your choice of attending institution change from March 2020? yes or no
- If your choice of attending institution changed, please explain what influenced your decision.
- How many classes are you taking virtually?
- How many classes are you taking in-person?
- How many classes are you taking in a hybrid model of virtual/in-person?
- Did your choice of attending institution change from March 2020? yes or no
- Based on your experience during the Fall 2021 semester, how likely are you to enroll in higher education for Spring 2021?
Extremely Likely Very Likely Neutral Very Unlikely Highly Unlikely.- Please explain what influenced your decision to enroll or not enroll for Spring 2021.
Significance of the Study
The emphasis on diversity in college admissions grew exponentially in 2020 due to the Black Lives Matter movement. Higher education is taking a more strategic look at increasing diversity in its student body, including first-generation students. Prior research has shown that first-generation students face barriers and challenges that are different from those of non-first-generation students when it comes to higher education. My research will identify specific barriers and challenges that first-generation students face and if these have changed due to COVID-19. This study will compare and contrast the obstacles and challenges that first-generation and non-first-generation students face during each phase of COVID-19. This information will inform higher education administrators what the specific needs are that first-generation students face during and possibly post-Covid-19, how those needs have changed, and how those needs are different from non-first-generation students. Knowing what these barriers and issues are that first-generation students face will allow higher education institutions to develop resources to address these specific areas of concern. Institutions may need to update their policies, programs, and processes to serve first-generation students better. This focus on creating a welcoming community for students based on their needs will result in more first-generation students enrolling in their institution.
Introduction
COVID-19 is a deadly health crisis that continues to affect higher education. As a precaution, in Spring 2020, many colleges and universities closed their campuses and moved their courses online. Other universities opted to offer a hybrid of online and in-person learning to limit students on campus (Hodges et al., 2020). The pandemic is ongoing, forcing higher education to continue remote learning, causing significant changes to enrollment and access to higher education, specifically to first-generation college students (FGCS). The proposed research defines FGCS as students who do not have a parent that graduated from a traditional four-year college. The research will build on existing studies to identify the challenges and issues that FGCS face due to COVID-19 at a private, Jesuit, Catholic university and a public university that offer resources and programs specific to FGCS.
This literature review will focus on the virus, the history of diversity in the United States, the current state of diversity in higher education, and how the virus has impacted FGCS access to higher education. The review confirms that FGCS have unique challenges in their access to and success in higher education and that these challenges are increasing due to COVID-19.
COVID-19
Understanding the history and timeline of COVID-19 is essential to understanding the virus's impact on higher education. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020) chronicles the timeline of the virus and the latest information on new cases, vaccines, and distribution. CDC COVID Data Tracker. (n.d.) is updated daily with the latest news on the number of cases and deaths by state. This information is essential to know since students apply to The George Washington University from all over the country.
The impact of COVID-19 on college admissions and diversity is just beginning to be studied. While many of the studies are not peer-reviewed, the information is timely and informative. Friga (2020) surveyed 285 presidents and chancellors who are members of the Presidents' Trust of the Association of American Colleges & Universities in March 2020 when colleges and universities across the country were closing campuses and implementing virtual online learning. The majority of those surveyed, 84 percent, anticipate a decrease in enrollment for both new and returning students. A decline in enrollment will hurt expected revenue, but the participants seem optimistic. Just over 50 percent expect decreases of revenue between 10 and 20 percent, with only 18 percent of respondents saying they expect revenue losses greater than 20 percent. Additional studies need to be reviewed throughout the pandemic to continue to measure this impact.
Kim et al. (2020) used data sets from a student survey completed in April 2020 to determine the impact of COVID-19 on college enrollment. The authors conclude that students' ability to succeed in a remote-learning environment differs significantly by income levels. Over 60 percent of students from lower-income households report not getting the necessary equipment for remote learning. Almost 35 percent of students from low-income families do not have reliable internet access. Over 55 percent say their home environment does not support remote learning. The authors will continue to research this topic.
McCarthy (2020) provides a real-time analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on FGCS through a webinar panel of student affairs administrators. The panel found that students are experiencing the following issues: 1. Anxiety about the availability of housing and summer bridge programs; 2. Access to computers and study space; 3. Delayed graduation when a family needs extra income; and 4. Lack of community when learning is virtual. The opinions and solutions offered are based on what the panelists observe and implement in their institutions. Several panelists see the pandemic as an opportunity to address access and equity in higher education.
Aucejo et al. (2020) conducted a survey to study the causal effects of COVID-19 on enrollment and graduation decisions, academic performance, major choice, study and social habits, remote learning experiences, current labor market participation, and expectations about future employment. The study focused on how these effects differ between existing socioeconomic divides and whether the pandemic has made those existing inequalities worse. The authors confirmed that lower-income students are 55 percent more likely to delay graduation due to COVID-19, and 41 percent are more likely to report that COVID-19 impacted their major choice. COVID-19 almost doubled the gap between higher and lower-income students' expected GPA. COVID-19 is making the socioeconomic disparities in higher education worse. Addressing the economic and health impacts of COVID-19 could prevent the widening existing gaps in higher education. This study is one of the first peer-reviewed papers on the effect of COVID-19 on college students' experiences. It confirms the conclusions from the non-peer-reviewed literature from Kim.
The socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19 may influence the virus's impact on higher education. Martin et al. (2020) create and use a microeconomic model to estimate the direct effect of distancing on household income, savings, consumption, and poverty over two periods: a crisis period during which individuals experience a drop in revenue and use their savings to maintain consumption; and a recovery period when households save to replenish their depleted savings to a pre-crisis level. The study concludes that the virus would lead to a massive economic downturn without social protection, increasing the poverty rate from 17.1% to 25.9% during a simulated 3-month lockdown. The average recovery time for households is almost one year. Government benefits at the state and federal levels would decrease the magnitude and longevity of the crisis. However, changes in consumer behavior and a general slowdown of economic activities will impact long-term recovery.
There is a lack of studies on the economic impact of COVID-19. This literature review includes information on previous national disasters. Gansemer-Topf et al. (2018) used data sets to study the 2008 recession and its impact on higher education tuition, enrollments, revenues, and expenditures. The study concluded that institutions impacted by external economic changes adjust revenues, staffing, and spending during economic transitions. The study also determined that the economic recession did not severely impact higher education institutions from an enrollment and retention perspective. The study did not consider subpopulations of students or how students paid for college. The authors acknowledge that additional research is needed to determine how expenditures and revenues during a crisis impact retention rates for students from different income levels, ethnicities and if the situation altered students' college choice process or how they paid for college.
One of the economic challenges students face in their pursuit of higher education is the high tuition cost. Bennett et al. (2015) study the impact of the financial burden of the high cost of a college education on students' academic performances. Higher education costs are increasing while real median income decreases, causing students to repay larger amounts of student debt, which can harm economic growth. The authors conclude that financially stressed students were more likely to be employed, worked longer hours, and received significantly lower grades in principles of economics courses. These students were disproportionately females, minorities, and FGCS, who attend college at a below-average rate. The research indicates that students' financial stress needs to decrease to help them get the education they need to be successful members of the economy. The authors' suggestions include improving students' financial literacy on financial aid and loans at both the high school and college levels. Increasing financial assistance at the federal level will help students from low-income families afford college. States need to improve their higher education funding so colleges can stop the higher than inflation-adjusted tuition increases. Further study on the economic impact of COVID-19 on students' access to higher education will offer additional solutions.
The switch to online learning is also a mitigating factor of COVID-19. Blankenberg et al. (2020) use Gaus's ecological approach to discuss the impact of COVID-19 on higher education. This approach identifies catastrophic events as change agents that force systems to react to achieve a new equilibrium. This mirrors McCarthy's (2020) analysis that the pandemic is an opportunity for institutions to address access and equity in higher education. Because of COVID-19, higher education had to shift from traditional delivery to distance instruction. Student demand for online education has been growing. The impact of COVID-19 could increase that growth. Some institutions already use online education but will need to expand and adjust what they already do. For other institutions, they will need to adapt at a larger capacity. Large-scale studies of community college students have shown that students with lower GPAs, males, and African American students suffer steep declines in fully online courses. Enrollment declines could escalate these inequities, especially for students of lower socioeconomic status. The study concludes that universities need to be prepared to deliver additional services to address the potential adverse outcomes.
Hodges et al. (2020) discuss the necessary elements of planned online learning and what is missing from emergency remote teaching due to COVID-19. Lack of traditional support resources and lack of a sense of community are two such areas. The authors conclude that conventional online learning cannot be compared to the emergency remote learning that is taking place due to COVID-19. While this article is not peer-reviewed, it is timely, and the information provided on the differences between planned online learning and emergency remote teaching is essential to know. It will inform what is missing from the current online experience for students.
It is essential to understand how students are reacting to online learning due to COVID-19. AguileraHermida (2020) uses student surveys to focus on the challenges and opportunities facing college students after COVID-19 forced them to learn virtually. The author defines three themes of challenges related to COVID-19:
- situational and environmental challenges – difficulty separating home and school, financial hardship, lack of social interaction, and sudden changes in their lives (death of a family member, being pregnant)
- online educational challenges – too much screen time, lack of supporting resources like peer tutoring and a library, communicating with a professor, lack of internet connection because so many were using it at once, increased workload, and being unfamiliar with some online tools
- emotional challenges – lack of motivation and negative emotions, stress, anxiety, and worrying about getting COVID-19
Hands (2020) looks at the impact of the abrupt transition to online education for FGCS due to COVID-19, focusing on the students' cultural assets instead of a deficit lens. The six cultural assets are reflexivity, optimism, academic resilience, goal-orientation, civic-mindedness, and proactivity. The author discusses issues confronting FGCS, including the digital divide where there is no access to reliable internet or a computer. The article uses the concept of community cultural wealth (CCW) as its theoretical frame of reference for giving structure to how educators and libraries can draw on FGCS assets during times of transition.
Suggestions for librarians include building alliances with trusted staff and advisors to educate staff within FGCS' networks on library resources; partnering with faculty to create assignments using transparent assignment design; creating opportunities where students can reflect on how their research process has changed due to sudden online-only access; and working with FGCS to share with their peers' tips and tricks based on their post-transition library, research and online experiences. This article is peer-reviewed and focuses on solutions to issues faced by FGCS as a result of COVID-19. Institutions can implement these solutions quickly.
History of Diversity in the United States
The impact of COVID-19 could exacerbate existing inequities in higher education. It is essential to understand the history of systemic racism in the United States to address these injustices. Noltemeyer et al. (2020) review the inequality in education based on race and ethnicity, linguistic diversity, gender, and disabilities. This book chapter ties the history of race and ethnicity in America to justice and equality. The authors give examples of oppression and unequal access to quality education for American Indians, Chinese Americans, and Latinos, emphasizing the discriminatory treatment of Black students. From the 1960s through the mid-1980s, American schools have become more integrated. This trend has dissipated in recent years. Contributing factors include changes in residential patterns, increased school choice, and recent court decisions that reversed earlier improvements.
Inequality in education is not a new concept. Reardon et al., (2014) look at school segregation trends since the Supreme Court's 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. Before Brown segregating schools by race was universal in the South and elevated in other parts of the country. The study found that Brown had a minimal immediate effect on school segregation. The most significant declines in black-white school segregation occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s following the Supreme Court's 1968 Green v. County School Board of New Kent County decision, requiring school districts to adopt more effective integration plans. Racial tolerance has also increased over time, but the opposition to busing and other school desegregation practices has increased.
Hammond et al. (2020) also discuss inequality over time in education for African Americans. The authors take this a step further and focus on the implications are of that inequality. Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were created in the mid-19th century in the South to allow black Americans to enroll in higher education. The 1944 G.I. Bill included tuition benefits for vocational schools or undergraduate programs for all veterans who had been on active duty. The benefits were not equally distributed to African American veterans due to racial discrimination. The Supreme Court's decision in 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson established the precedent of "separate but equal" that essentially legalized racial segregation in the public school system. Brown v. Board of Education ruled in 1954 that racial segregation in schools is unconstitutional. This ruling was met with strong resistance, especially in the South.
Desegregation was a slow process, and many schools remained racially segregated for decades following the court's decision. The authors also address the disparity in public school funding. This funding varies from state to state and across communities due to variations in income, property values, and tax rates. Lower-income neighborhoods suffer the most and disproportionately affects African Americans. Years of racial inequality resulted in the disparity in academic performance between students of different races. The authors refer to this disparity as the achievement gap due to the disproportionate number of people of color living in low-income neighborhoods with less access to adequately funded schools and less access to educational resources at home. The psychological burden of this achievement gap on students of color contributes to perpetuating the gap.
Events in the past year are having an impact on public opinion. Cohn et al. (2020) review the impact of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement on support for racial diversity. The authors used data from a daily tracking poll of registered voters to assess support for BLM. Public opinion on criminal justice issues and race has been moving left since the first protests erupted over Trayvon Martin and Michael Brown's fatal shootings. This increase skyrocketed after the death of George Floyd in police custody on May 25, 2020. During the last week of May 2020 and the first week of June 2020, BLM support increased 28 percent, almost as much as between 2018 and 2020. The authors refer to a Monmouth University poll that found 76 percent of Americans consider racism and discrimination a "big problem," up 26 points from 2015. Additional polls reviewed in this study show that most Americans believe that police are more likely to use deadly force against African Americans and that there is a lot of discrimination against black Americans in society. When BLM began in 2013, a majority of voters did not believe this to be true. This article is not peer-reviewed, but the data analysis validates the increase in BLM's support and attention and the change in public opinion on racial issues.
Diversity, Equity, and Access to Higher Education
There continues to be a large national disparity in diversity, equity, and access to higher education. Musu-Gillette et al. (2017) used statistics to examine current conditions and changes over time in educational activities and outcomes for different racial/ethnic groups in the United States. The study used demographic population data from 1990 to 2016. The study found that the total college enrollment rate for Asian 18-24-year-olds is higher than White, Black, Hispanic and American Indian/Alaska peers. A more significant percentage of undergraduates are female than male across all racial/ethnic groups. The gap was widest for Black students and American Indian/Alaska Native students. More than 60 percent of the students identified as female, than just under 40 percent identifying as male. The gap was narrowest for Asian students, with 52 percent identifying as female and 48 percent identifying as male. The study concludes that some traditionally disadvantaged racial/ethnic groups have made strides in educational achievement over the past few decades, but that gaps persist. This article provides useful background information on demographics before COVID-19.
Monarrez et al. (2020) used data from 2009 to 2017 to focus on a narrow pool of students who might attend a given school to measure the difference in a racial or ethnic group's share of enrollment from that group's percentage of the college market population. The authors defined a market for each college based on the distance most students are willing to travel to attend different institutions. The racial and ethnic composition of the college was compared with that of the college's market. The results indicate factors that affect a college's student body composition goes beyond local demographic design. Admissions and tuition policies, state appropriations for higher education beliefs about the value of college, and a local labor market demand all play a role. The study identified key enrollment patterns of over-and-underrepresentation among different racial and ethnic groups. Black students continue to be severely underrepresented at more selective colleges. Black representation at public and private universities is nearly identical. Hispanic students have increased at less-selective public colleges and community colleges since 2009, but the number of Hispanic students is still low at more selective universities. White students continue to be overrepresented at more selective colleges and have become more underrepresented at community colleges. Asian students are also overrepresented at more selective institutions. Native American students have become more underrepresented at more selective colleges. Pacific Islanders are slightly underrepresented at public and private universities across all sectors. All minority groups are increasingly overrepresented at for-profit institutions. The study does not address the inequity within higher education. However, the review uses data sets from surveys conducted annually by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics. It provides information on the under-and-overrepresentation among racial and ethnic groups before COVID-19.
Admissions criteria used by colleges and universities may have an impact on the institutions' diversity. Rosinger, K.O. et al. (2020) used data sets from 2008 to 2016 to examine how the importance of various admissions criteria relate to enrollment among racially and economically marginalized students. The findings indicate ambiguous criteria that compromise a more comprehensive approach to admissions do very little to eliminate existing enrollment inequities and, in some cases, may increase these inequities. The criteria include subjective assessments of interviews, essays, and recommendations. The use of these ambiguous criteria led to lower levels of Pell Grant recipient enrollment at some institutions. Extracurricular involvement and subjective evaluations could advantage privileged families but may do little to alter other students' enrollment. Specific evaluation criteria that focused on test scores related to race and class could reproduce the existing inequalities. First-generation student status may not boost enrollment among other marginalized students at public and less-selective colleges. The authors conclude that moving away from legacy admissions that give students preference with family connections to the institution, de-emphasizing standardized test scores, and considering academic rigor could be strategies to support low-income student enrollment at public colleges.
Latinx students face specific challenges to college access. Rutter et al. (2020) used qualitative data provided by high school counselors on their role in disseminating college information to Latinx students. The report highlights the critical role of social capital. School counselors serve an overwhelming number of students. Parental involvement is vital, and early intervention is crucial. Parents and students have misperceptions about college. Finances are the largest roadblock to college access. Fear of leaving home is also a barrier for Latinx students. The study concludes that school counselors face challenges in addressing inequality in college access, especially for first-generation Latinx students.
The lack of diversity in higher education faculty is a factor in diversity in students who enroll in college. Nunez et al. (2012) used data on Latinos' demographics in higher education to focus on Latinas, the discrimination, and harmful stereotypes they face because they are both female and Latina. The authors found that Latino enrollment is increasing, and Latinos now outnumber African Americans in the population. Latinos usually start in community colleges or less selective 4-year institutions with lower persistence and completion rates. The political climate in the U.S. is hostile for Latinos. Some key states have banned affirmative action policies. Stereotypes about Latinos as depicted in the media can harm Latino students' academic achievement and completion rates. The success of Latina faculty is directly linked to the success of Latina students.
Chen, A. (2017) reinforces the research conducted by Nunez et al. (2012) on the need for more diverse faculty. This study provides a qualitative analysis of diversity in higher education and effective practices in instructional leadership. The article also offers suggestions for institutional leaders to integrate diversity into their campus culture. Three standards define higher education institutions' role and the relationships between higher education and diverse communities:
- developing trust and engaging individual cultures
- developing new admissions and hiring policies that promote equality
- introducing diversity into the university through a systematic approach
First-Generation College Students
To understand the impact COVID-19 has on FGCS, we must first understand the unique challenges these students regularly face. Murphy et al. (2006) surveyed students attending a doctoral-granting public four-year historically Black university to determine whether differences exist in the academic expectations of FGCS and non-first-generation students (NFGCS). The article gives background information on the differences between FGCS and NFGCS in academic preparation and academic integration. The authors defined FGCS as students with parents with no college experience and students with at least one parent with some college experience but no college degree. NFGCS were defined as students who had a parent with a bachelor's degree. Students who had parents with no college experience were more likely to expect to stay at their institution until graduation instead of transferring. They were also more likely to expect to spend less time socializing with friends than other students. The other academic expectations were similar between the two groups of students. This information will contrast and compare how these characteristics have changed or stayed the same due to COVID-19.
The stressors that FGCS face are unique compared to NFGCS. House et al., (2020) study students from a midsize public university that completed at least an intake session at the counseling center. Just over 25 percent identified as FGCS. The study found that FGCS reported significantly more academic distress, works hours, and financial distress than NFGCS. They also have the highest dropout rates in postsecondary education and are recognized as an at-risk group. FGCS tend to be minorities, children of immigrants, and to come from low socioeconomic backgrounds. They also tend to be older, work full-time and live off-campus, compares to NFGCS. FGCS face social, economic, cultural, and academic challenges in their transition to college. They must work more hours to cover their expenses and have more responsibilities and obligations than NFGCS. The study found that FGCS show more resilience and determination to be successful despite an environment that underestimated their efforts. FGCS can overcome their feelings of incompetency and perform as well academically as NFGCS. The authors determined it is essential for higher education institutions to understand the unique needs of FGCS and accommodate them as much as possible. The authors collected data in Fall 2016, Spring 2017, and Fall 2017, so it does not include the impact of COVID-19.
FGCS also have unique motivators. Cataldi et al., (2018) use existing data sets to examine the personal, enrollment, academic, and career characteristics of FGCS. The authors compared the experiences and outcomes with those of two groups who had attended college: students with at least one parent who earned a bachelor's degree and students with at least one parent who attended college but no parent had earned a bachelor's degree. The report describes the experiences of FGCS during and after school enrollment, focusing on enrollment and labor market outcomes, compared to their peers whose parents enrolled in or completed college. Among students that were high school sophomores in 2002, 72 percent of students whose parents had never attended college had enrolled in postsecondary education by 2012, compared to 84 percent of students whose parents had some college education and 93 percent of students whose parents had earned a bachelor's degree.
It is also essential to understand what factors influence FGCS when they choose a college. Garza et al. (2018) use existing data sets to examine the factors influencing FGCS' college choice. These factors include family responsibilities, financial hardships, and other environmental considerations. The article found that FGCS attend colleges at closer distances to home than students whose parents are college-educated. More FGCS recognize the importance of living at home while going to school than NFGCS. The study also focused on whether these factors impact GPA and degree attainment. Living at home while attending college benefits socioeconomically disadvantaged students because of the reduction/savings in tuition, rent, utilities, or commuting expenses. Living at home or close to family while in college is also accepted in students' family roots and cultural norms. However, FGCS living at home participate less in student organizations and other areas of campus life.
The factors that increase access to higher education for FGCS need to be determined. Lozano-Partida (2018) analyzed data from interviews with FGCS from a midsize public university. The data were coded into themes and patterns to gain insight into the factors that students identify as key in increasing access to higher education. FGCS find motivation through their families. There are positive experiences and the desire to have a "better life" by going to college and changing their current economic situation. The author concludes that the K-12 college counseling process starts too late for most FGCS. FGCS that attend college fail to understand higher education's financial aspects and limit their college selection to affordable ones. Mitchall et al. (2018) confirm the impact family has on FGCS motivation to go to college. This article concludes that parents/guardians and other family members greatly influence students' motivation during college planning. Parents/family members provide students with autonomy during college planning by supporting the student's college choice. Parents supported their students' choice in major and encouraged them to "better their lives" by attending college. Parents reassured their students that they were "college material" by setting high academic achievement standards at an early age. Students could be influenced by their siblings by either following in their footsteps or because they wanted to be an example.
Universities and colleges can play a role in FGCS academic success. Petty, T. (2014) conducted a literature review focused on the role institutions play in motivating FGCS through intrinsic and external factors that encourage students to remain in college. The literature reviewed in this article discusses why it is essential for institutions to create Bridge Programs for FGCS. The author concludes that FGCS are not adequately prepared for college, and these programs help students face their challenges and weaknesses. Overcoming intimation and barriers are skills that FGCS lack but need to survive and be successful in college. Bridge programs can provide the assistance and resources FGCS require to be successful. This article is pre-COVID but explains why Bridge Programs are needed to address FGCS' challenges and issues.
Schelbe, L. et al. (2019) study the perceptions of FGCS of an academic retention program. This article builds on Petty, T. (2014) 's research, giving examples of how a bridge program can impact the successful transition to college and academic success of FGCS. The article defines FGCS as students who are the first to attend college, and neither parent attended college or earned a college degree. The authors used focus groups and interviews of 25 students in GenOne, an FGCS academic retention program at a large southeastern public university of 40,000 students. The goal of the GenOne program is to promote academic success and increase retention of FGCS. The cornerstone of the program is the Summer Bridge Program. This intensive eight-week program provides experiences to incoming FGCS to help them prepare for college's academic rigors. The students are given an orientation to the program, university, and community. Other features of the GenOne program include mandatory study time, peer education, shared living, and academic advising. Students reported elements of the program that contributed to their academic success and retention include:
- the beneficial relationships of staff, faculty, mentors, and peers,
- having a sense of responsibility in college and planning to succeed,
- personal growth and skill development,
- tools, institution connections, and financial assistance.
Conclusion
COVID-19 is a new phenomenon that will continue to be studied as time goes on. The literature available confirms that the coronavirus continues to impact higher education. The literature also demonstrates that FGCS face unique challenges and barriers that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. Some institutions have implemented programs specifically for FGCS that contribute to their academic success and retention. These challenges and issues of FGCS need further qualitative study to understand the changes that universities and colleges need to make to increase FGCS' access to higher education and ensure they can succeed.
Methodology
This qualitative study is a thematic analysis of data from first-generation college students (FGCS) to determine the factors influencing their college enrollment decision during COVID-19. I will conduct surveys of FGCS to understand the impact of COVID-19 on their enrollment in college. I chose a phenomenological research design because it is most appropriate for examining a phenomenon (COVID-19) and the experiences of individuals (FGCS) who have all experienced the phenomenon (Creswell 2018).
Qualitative research has distinct characteristics. Data will be collected in a natural setting. I will create the instrument (survey) to gather the information and interpret it. The survey will ask open-ended questions so participants can share their stories in their own words. I will review the data and organize it into codes and themes common to all data sources. My research focuses on learning the meaning FGCS hold about the impact of COVID-19 on their college enrollment decision. Qualitative research is an emergent design that may change or shift as data is collected (Creswell 2018). Questions can change, forms of data collection may shift, and individuals or sites used may be adjusted.
COVID-19 is a new phenomenon impacting college enrollment that has not been sufficiently studied; therefore, a qualitative approach is needed to explore and understand COVID-19 and its impact. Thus far, the only research has been on the initial effects of COVID when most universities moved to virtual learning. I need to understand the FGCS' experiences throughout the pandemic to identify critical factors that impacted their ability to enroll in college. As the literature review shows, FGCS do not have equal access to higher education. Some unique barriers and motivators impact their ability to enroll in college (Hands, 2020; Mitchall et al., 2018, Schelbe et al., 2019). This study will identify the key factors that students found to impact their enrollment status during COVID-19.
Knowing and understanding these key barriers or motivators that FGCS identify as impacting their enrollment decision is essential in providing equitable access to higher education enrollment. This study will offer universities and colleges the necessary knowledge to identify changes that need to be made to programs and processes to address these factors to combat this inequity.
Research Questions
The central research question guiding this study is, are there factors that (FGCS) identify as significant contributors to their decision to enroll or not enroll in college during COVID-19. The sub-questions will be open-ended to gain as much information as possible from all participants. Because my participants will be students offered admission to a university, the sub-questions will focus on their enrollment decision and the factors that influenced that decision.
1. Did you decide to enroll in higher education for Fall 2021? Yes or No
2. What factors influenced your enrollment decision for Fall 2021?
3. If your choice of attending institution changed during the pandemic, please explain why.
4. How likely are you to enroll in higher education for Spring 2022? Likert Scale
a. Please explain what influenced your enrollment decision for Spring 2022.
5. If you enrolled for Fall 2021, how like are you to stay enrolled for Spring 2022?
a. Please explain what influenced your enrollment decision for Spring 2022.
Sampling
This qualitative study will be conducted through interviews and surveys of students participating in FGCS programs at the University of Virginia (UVA), the George Washington University (GW), and Georgetown University (Georgetown). I will offer incentives to students that participate in the surveys and interviews. The program directors at each university agreed to assist with my research and send information to their students. The student sample should be at least 500 students for my study.
Georgetown's IRB requires proof of Bradley's IRB approval to allow their students to be part of my research. No other paperwork is required. The UVA IRB requires copies of my full IRB protocol submission and an IRB determination letter from Bradley University. GW requires an IRB determination letter from Bradley University.
UVA is a public university located in Charlottesville, Virginia, that supports FGCS through the First-Generation Student Support unit of the Office of the Dean of Students (ODOS). The team supports FGCS by providing programming, social events, and connecting the first-generation community known as HoosFirst. HoosFirst includes FGCS, faculty, and staff. Support for the university's 1,500 FGCS is provided through intentional connections and educational programming to help FGCS transition to UVA and thrive in their academic, social, and personal lives during their time at UVA. The Associate Dean of Students has agreed to promote my research and ask students to volunteer for interviews in their FGCS student newsletter. Students will reach out to me via email to indicate their interest in scheduling an interview. I anticipate at least 10 percent of the students will participate, giving me a sample size of 150 students.
GW is a private university located in Washington, DC, with a total enrollment of 26,000 undergraduate and graduate students. There are 1,750 FGCS enrolled as undergraduate students. The Founding Scholars program welcomes incoming first-generation college students to life at GW through pre-orientation activities on-campus and outings in DC. Students will build community with other first-gen students, connect with faculty & staff, and learn valuable academic and campus resources. The coordinator for the Founding Scholars will send my survey directly to the students on my behalf. I anticipate at least 10 percent of the students will participate, giving me a sample size of 175 students.
The GW admissions office will send out a feedback survey in June 2021 to the 12,000 students offered admission for Fall 2021. Reference will be made to my research in the survey, and a question will be added for FGCS asking how COVID-19 impacted their college enrollment decision. GW Admissions will share the data with me in July. GW anticipates 4,000 students will respond. I predict that 10 percent of the respondents will be FGCS, giving me a sample size of 400 students.
Georgetown is a private, Jesuit, Catholic university located in Washington, DC that offers two programs specifically for FGCS, the Community Scholars Program (CSP) and the Georgetown Scholars Program (GSP).
The mission of CSP is to enroll a more racially and socioeconomically diverse student body by providing additional educational opportunities for a multicultural cohort of FGCS. The CSP experience begins with a five-week academic summer program before the students' first year at Georgetown to assist their transition to higher education. Students take classes for credit, attend orientation workshops, and begin forming bonds with each other, teachers, and administrators to help sustain them through college. The program supports students throughout their Georgetown careers with academic advising, mentoring and personal counseling, study groups, workshops, and seminars.
GSP provides programmatic support for FGCS, working with students after being admitted to CPS through advising and mentorship opportunities, community building, necessary funding, and advocacy work. Both programs are interested in learning more about the impact of COVID-19 on their enrollment and are amenable to sending my survey. There are approximately 70 students enrolled through CSP each year. Students are tagged by Admissions and invited to join GSP and are offered the 1789 Scholarship as part of the invitation. A little over 140 students accept the scholarship and are inducted into the program each year. I anticipate at least 10 percent of students in both programs will participate, giving me a sample size of 21 students. GSP has agreed to share their yield of FGCS from the last five years up to Fall 2021. I will compare this information to see any yield changes from the pre-COVID admissions cycle to the post-COVID admissions cycle.
Data Collection
The purpose of a phenomenological study is to learn from the shared experience of a group of people to a specific phenomenon (Creswell, 2018). FGCS share unique barriers and motivators that impact their ability to enroll in higher education. COVID-19 has exacerbated this inequity. To better understand the factors that FGCS are experiencing during the pandemic, qualitative surveys and interviews are essential. These inquiry tools will allow me to understand the students' experiences during COVID and identify themes and similarities in their ability to enroll in higher education.
My surveys will be distributed to FGCS by the CSP and GSP at Georgetown, the Founding Scholars program at GW. I will promote my research and ask for volunteers to sit for an interview through the HoosFirst newsletter at UVA. Using these FGCS programs will ensure the participants are FGCS, so their responses will help me understand the impact COVID-19 had on their college enrollment decision. The programs will clarify to the students that there is no obligation to participate in the survey or interview and that there are no penalties if they do not participate.
I will provide incentives to all students that complete the survey or sit for an interview. The incentives will include registration in a large gift card raffle for all respondents. If this does not produce a significant number of participants, I will offer a smaller, individual gift card to each student that responds to the survey. By incentivizing students to respond to my survey, I should have a significant sample of students to draw from as research participants.
I will not ask for any personal identifiers to ensure the privacy of the students. There will be a consent form that each participant will sign acknowledging their consent to act as a research subject. The form will include the study's goal and how the information will be used to show the students why the research is essential and why they need to tell their story. The survey will consist of five open-ended questions to obtain as much information as possible from the students. At the end of the survey, students will be given the option to reach out to me via email or cell phone if they are interested in sharing more information. Additional outreach is not a requirement to receive an incentive or participate in the study. The interview questions will be identical to the questions in the survey.
Data Analysis and Management
I am a first-generation college student, and this research is very personal to me. I experienced barriers to enrolling in college that I was able to work through. Not all FGCS can overcome those barriers, especially when a global pandemic exacerbates them. COVID-19 brings an added phenomenon to the inequity in access to higher education. I do not have any preconceived notions of what information the responses will contain since it has been over 40 years since I was applying to college. I will look for how my survey and interview answers connect to my research questions and common themes. I will start analyzing surveys and interviews as they are completed, writing memos that I might include as part of the final report.
My analysis will use a systematic process to arrange, understand and code the information collected. As Creswell (2018) states, qualitative data analysis is a process of sequential steps that should be followed. I will organize and prepare the data for analysis by sorting and arranging the data based on which university offered the respondent admission. I will read through the surveys and interview notes to identify the general ideas that come out of the responses.
Coding the data is the next step of the process. I will not use predetermined codes in analyzing the data. Codes will be developed only based on the emerging information. Data from the surveys will be hand-coded through reading and re-reading the surveys and interview notes. If a large number of surveys are completed, I will use a coding software program to simplify and expedite the coding process. The software will also be used to store the data and will ensure the privacy of the respondents.
Common categories or patterns in the responses will be identified and labeled with an in vivo term to reflect the responses' language. The coding will generate common themes that will be compared to determine similarities or differences. I will use the memos and notes taken during the review and coding process to create a narrative to discuss the analysis's findings in my final report.
Ethics
This study will be conducted in full compliance with the Institutional Review Board (IRB) guidelines at Bradley University, Georgetown, and UVA. All data created and collected will be saved on a password-protected laptop computer for five years, as recommended by the American Psychological Association (Creswell, 2018). No personal identifiers will be used for the participants. I understand I have a responsibility to ensure the participants' safety and security to maintain the participants' privacy and confidentiality. Participation in the survey will be optional for all students.
All participants will be treated equally and sign a consent form acknowledging consent to act as a research subject, including the study's goal and how I will use their information. It is optional for students to follow up with me with any additional information beyond the survey or interview questions and is not required for participation in the survey or the incentives to complete the survey.
The surveys and requests for interviews will be sent directly to the students from the FGCS programs at their respective universities with clear instructions that their participation is optional. Incentives will be offered to students that complete the survey or interview and will be equally distributed between the two research sites.
My data analysis will report multiple perspectives and all findings, both positive and negative. Copies of my study will be provided to all participants and the programs distributing the surveys.
Timeline
I plan on submitting my application to Bradley's IRB by the end of May 2021. This timeline will give me sufficient time to get approval and submit the approved paperwork to UVA, GW, and Georgetown for their review and approval. GW Admissions will include information on my research and my central research question in their June outreach to admitted students. At their request, the FGCS programs at UVA, GW, and Georgetown will send out my survey and request interviews with their students in early September 2021 because the summer is the busiest time of the year. September is also the beginning of their Fall semester, well before students are entrenched in their courses and worrying about exams.
According to my program of study, I will take ENC 705: Action Research: Data Collection in Action Research over the summer. I want to make sure I have a firm grasp of data collection if logistical issues need to be addressed. Collecting data in early Fall will allow me to conduct follow-up surveys and interviews if necessary or if requested by participants and stay on track to complete my dissertation on time.
I will start analyzing data as the students complete the surveys and interviews. This process could take several weeks. I anticipate having all data collected by October 30, 2021.
Summary
This study will address how COVID-19 has impacted college admissions diversity, specifically targeting higher education access for FGCS. Increased support of Black Lives Matter and the onset of COVID-19 have increased awareness of the inequity in access to higher education. The emphasis on diversity in college admissions has grown exponentially, and universities are taking a more strategic look at increasing diversity in their study body, including first-generation students. Racial diversity and inequity in higher education is not a new concept. However, the impact of COVID-19 on access to higher education for FGCS needs additional study since the pandemic is a recent phenomenon.
I will use a phenomenological, qualitative research design to gain as much information as possible on the experiences of FGCS during COVID-19. Data collection will be conducted through surveys and interviews of FGCS offered admission to three universities that offer programs designed explicitly for FGCS. Data will be analyzed using a coding system to identify common themes and patterns in the responses. The findings will be reported in a narrative to provide Universities and colleges the necessary knowledge to identify changes that need to be made to programs and processes to address the barriers FGCS face in college enrollment.
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